Is Race Still an Issue?

In class recently, we have been learning about the Latin American Revolutions. In doing this, we were given the question, “Why is it essential to acknowledge human value regardless of race? How are the events in the Latin American revolutions evidence of this social imperative?”. The first step to answering this question was making a pie chart, showing all of the different races in Latin America (peninsulares, Creoles, Mestizos, Mulattoes and free blacks, Indian peoples and slaves), with the percent of the population that the race consisted of. In addition to this chart, we made another chart that showed the races based on their social class. With this background information, the class split into three large groups, and each group chose a revolution to focus on. The choices were the revolutions of Mexico, Brazil and Gran Colombia. With an article about the information, each group made a timeline of important events that occurred during the revolution. After the timelines were completed, each of the larger groups split up into four smaller groups, with each smaller group containing at least one “representative” from one of the larger groups. In these smaller groups, the representatives presented the information they had gathered with the members of other timeline groups. The last thing each group did was find two similarities and two differences between the three revolutions.

A timeline of the Mexican Revolution

One commonality between the three revolutions is that all three were fought in order to be independent of European nations. Brazil revolted against Portuguese rule while both Gran Colombia and Mexico revolted against Spanish rule. Another similarity shared by all three revolutions is the fact that they all occurred in a close proximity to one another, in the early 1800’s. One difference between the revolutions is the level of violence employed. Brazil was very peaceful, Gran Colombia was very violent and closer to war, and Mexico was somewhere between the two with both physical rebellion and verbal negotiation. Another difference is what kind of government the independent nations used. Gran Colombia became a republic, and both Brazil and Mexico became constitutional monarchies (soon after, Mexico also became a republic). Despite all of the commonalities and differences of the revolutions, they all boil down to one issue: race. In Mexico, mestizos and slaves fought alongside Miguel Higaldo y Costilla for racial equality. Brazilians of different races were displeased when their ruler Pedro, a peninsular, would only have cabinet members who were also penisulares. Lastly, Gran Columbia’s revolution involved Simon Bolivar, a creole, fighting for races that were low on the social chart.

Sadly, the issue of race still exists in society today, and there are many controversial occurrences based on race that happen each day. A high profile example of such an occurrence was in Ferguson, Missouri, where police officer Darren Wilson shot and killed Michael Brown, an unarmed teenager. A grand jury recently decided not to indict Wilson, which resulted in outrage from many across the country. Riots have erupted not just in Ferguson, but in many cities spanning the country; even so, there are outspoken supporters on both sides. It is important to consider the issue of race in our lives today, as the world will never be fully rid of racism.

How Should We Remember Toussaint Louverture?

Most people want to be remembered for something. Whatever it is, be it for inventing something, being a world-class athlete or a musician, or just being someone people want to be around, it is important to leave the world having made a mark on it. Toussaint Louverture of 18th century Haiti is certainly an individual who made his mark on the world. In the 1700s, Haiti was known as Saint Domingue, under French control, and producing 40 percent of the world’s coffee and half of the world’s sugar. Louverture grew up a slave, one of 500,000 slaves in all of Haiti, and was later granted freedom by his master. In the summer of 1789, in the midst of the French Revolution, news arrived in Saint Domingue that the French were fighting for liberty, fraternity and equality. The slaves of Saint Domingue realized that they deserved equal rights as well. However, after demands for the abolition of slavery were turned down by white plantation owners, a rebellion was under way. Louverture played an integral role in the rebellion and the events after, remembered as a military commander and a ruler of Saint Domingue. However, he should be remembered most as a liberator of slaves because of his undying will and commitment to the cause.

Louverture’s role as a liberator of slaves was his most important not only for the accomplishments he made, but also for his strong devotion and passion. Despite his accomplishments, however, he was not always the outspoken leader that he came to be. During the slave revolt in 1792, Louverture served as a doctor for the slave troops, and was also head to a small group of soldiers (Document A). Even though his role was not as significant then, it shows that he always felt the same way and was always wanting to help the cause. In 1794, slavery was abolished in Saint Domingue by the revolutionary government. Later, in 1795, The French Directory replaced the existing government, and the citizens of Saint Domingue feared that this new government would reinstate slavery. In a letter to the French Directory, Louverture used such language as, “Could men who have once enjoyed the benefits of liberty look on calmly while it is taken from them!” and “... if they had a thousand lives, they would sacrifice them all rather than be subjected again to slavery” (Document B). This shows that Louverture was truly emotionally invested in the cause, because of the fact that he had been a slave as well. In addition to those strong words, Louverture also had something else to say to the French Directory; he wrote, “We have known how to confront danger to our liberty, and we will know how to confront death to preserve it” (Document B). This exhibits Louverture’s courage, as he was willing to stand up the French government, and put everything on the line, for what he believed was right. In addition to his letter to the French Directory, Louverture also exhibits his role as a liberator of slaves in the Saint Domingue Constitution of 1801. In article 3 of the constitution, he states "There cannot exist slaves in this territory, servitude is therein forever abolished. All men are born, live and die free and French" (Document C). By including this, Louverture states clearly that slavery in Saint Domingue is will forever by nonexistent, as long as he has a say in the matter, that is. Also, in articles 15 and 16, Louverture states, "Each plantation... Shall represent the quiet haven of an active and constant family, of which the owner of the land... Shall be the father", and "Each cultivator and each worker is a member of the family and is entitled to a share in the revenues" (Document C). In this statement, Louverture makes it clear that slave labor is no longer tolerable, and that all workers will receive the compensation that they deserve. Without Louverture, slaves would never have had a voice to stand up for them, and it would likely have been many more years until they had finally been liberated. That is why this was his most important role.

Even though it may not have been his most important role, Louverture also had a major impact as a ruler of Saint Domingue. In 1801, Louverture was nominated as the General in Chief of Saint Domingue, and was to remain the general for the rest of his life (Document C). In having this position, Louverture headed and assembled the commission that created Saint Domingue’s constitution of 1801. In article 14 of the constitution, it is stated that “The colony being essentially agricultural cannot suffer the least disruption in the works of its cultivation” (Document C). This shows that Louverture was aware of what the country needed in order for the economy to thrive, as well as stay afloat. A few months after the Constitution, Louverture also wrote a Proclamation. In this Proclamation, Louverture wrote, “As soon as a child can walk, he should be employed on the plantation according to his strength in some useful work” (Document D). In demanding this, Louverture was making sure that the country’s agriculture did as well as it could, which would make the country as a whole a greater power. In addition to this, he also wrote, “All male and female citizens... must obtain a security card. Such card shall contain the family name, address... age and sex of the person who bears it”, in order to prevent vagabond farmers (Document D). Louverture again was trying to sustain the agricultural success of the country, due to it being the main power of the country, with it producing 40 percent of the world’s coffee and half of the world’s sugar. Due to these reasons, Louverture’s role as a ruler of Saint Domingue was important, but not of the same significance as his liberating the country’s slaves.

In addition to his roles as a liberator of slaves and a ruler of Saint Domingue, Louverture was also a respected military commander. As a military commander, Louverture is described as having, “superior knowledge of the character of his race, his humanity, generosity, and courage, and had gained the confidence of all whom he had under his command” (Document F). However, that doesn’t mean he’s unwilling to make sacrifices for the greater good. Hyacinth Mouse, Louverture’s nephew, was part of a rebellion that broke out due to former slaves being against Saint Domingue’s new farming policies (Document E). In response to the rebellion, Louverture forced many men of varying ranks who were part of the rebellion to shoot themselves, and ordered a firing squad on his nephew (Document E). By doing this, Louverture showed that he was willing to do whatever it takes to maintain order, and in that case, he was suppressing a rebellion. In addition to this, Louverture was able to defeat the French army at Samana, with an army of only former slaves against France’s army (Document F). This victory shows Louverture’s ability to come out on top when it is most important. For these reasons, Louverture was an able military commander, but this role was less important than his role as a liberator of slaves.

Louverture was able to accomplish a lot in his lifetime. He was the Chief General of Saint Domingue, proving himself as a good ruler by maintaining the country’s power and strengthening the economy. Apart from ruling Saint Domingue, Louverture also served as a military commander, crushing a rebellion and defeating the French army. Despite these achievements, however, Louverture’s most important work was as a liberator of slaves. At first, he fought on the side of the rebels, but later he made sure no person was working without pay, threatening the French to ensure they wouldn’t reinstate slavery. Due to these reasons, Louverture should be most remembered as a liberator of slaves.

Document A: Created from various sources.

Document B: Toussaint Louverture, “Letter to the French Directory, November 1797.”

Document C:The Saint Domingue Constitution of 1801. Signed by Toussaint Louverture in July 1801.

Document D: Toussaint Louverture, “Proclamation, 25 November 1801.”

Document E: Madison Smartt Bell, Toussaint Louverture: A Biography, 2007

Document F: William Wells Brown, “A Description of Toussaint Louverture”, from The Black Man, His Antecedents, His Genius, and His Achievements, 2nd edition, 1863. Engraving of Toussaint Louverture, 1802.

Did the Historians Get it Right?

In recent weeks, our class has been attempting to answer whether or not the revolutions of 1830 and 1848 were truly failures, as historians often conclude, or if they also had positive impacts. In doing this, the class was split into groups, and each group was assigned one of the revolutions, which they were to make a SurveyMonkey about. Our group was assigned the French Revolution of 1848. Before making the survey, each group analyzed a summary to find the country where the revolution occurred, the date, the goals of the rebels, the opponent, the outcome, and the reasons for either a success or failure. Also, various primary sources were labeled as being about the opponents, the goals or the outcome. The questions on the survey were pulled from the summary and the primary sources. After each group finished, all of the surveys were taken and later explained to the whole class.

One question from our survey

The French Revolution of 1848 occurred in France, in 1848. In rebelling, the lower class wished to end recession and to rid the country of monarchy in order to make it a republic. The ruler at the time, Louis Philippe, was largely disliked by the lower classes, and Philippe was thought to be corrupted. Due to this, the government was blamed for various problems in society, such as the loss of jobs due to factories shutting down. In response to the lower classes’ complaints, the government took action and tried to silence them. This resulted in the February Days, which ended with Louis Philippe stepping down from power, and the proclamation of the Second Republic of France. In the proclamation, it was stated that, “royalty, under whatever form, is abolished; no more legitimism, no more Bonapartism, no regency. The provisional government has taken all the measures necessary to render impossible the return of the former dynasty or the advent of a new dynasty.” Even with a republic, however, the lower classes were still unhappy, due to the fact that the upper and middle classes were still majorly in control of the government. This resulted in the June Days, in which most of the revolution’s violence occurred, resulting in over 1,500 deaths. After the June Days, it was decided that France needed a president in order to keep order. Louis Napoleon was then elected. In the Proclamation of 14 January 1852, Napoleon asked, “Since France has been functioning for the past fifty years only thanks to... the consulate and the empire, why should we not also adopt the political institutions of that time period?”. Keeping with these ideals, Napoleon proclaimed himself emperor and began the Second Empire. However, after too many conquests, the empire was brought down and French leadership in Europe was over. The French Revolution of 1848 was not a complete failure, and fell in the middle of the spectrum between success and failure. The lower class got what they wanted for a short amount of time with the republic being established. However, the republic was short lived, and they were soon under another empire with limited rights.

Overall, while none of the revolutions were completely successful, few of them completely failed. The one revolution that could simply be classified as a failure was the Decembrist Revolt, which occurred in Russia. After Tsar Alexander’s death, the public wanted Constantine, Alexander’s eldest brother, to claim the throne, but he refused the offer. Due to this, Nicholas, Alexander’s youngest brother, claimed the throne. Due to Nicholas claiming the throne, the revolution did not pay off and the wanted change did not occur in any way. The French Revolution of 1848 was not a complete failure, and fell in the middle of the spectrum between success and failure. The lower class got what they wanted for a short amount of time with the republic being established. However, the republic was short lived, and they were soon under another empire with limited rights. The Hungary Revolution of 1848 was also partially successful. This revolution, which began in Vienna, spread to Budapest and Prague, where demands for an independent government and an end for serfdom arose. The Austrian government agreed to these terms, but quickly regained control of Vienna, Budapest and Prague, thus ending the terms which were previously agreed upon. In all, the revolutions of 1830 and 1848 can’t all be called failures, because  even if they weren’t successful for long, many resulted in positive outcomes to some degree.